Languages

India is home to 22 official languages; 121 languages spoken by 10,000 or more people; and nearly 20,000 different languages and dialects.

The languages listed below are the ones I have referred to in entries this website.

The transcription used on this website is based on ISO 15919 for Brahmic/Indic scripts with a few modifications to make it easier to read for English-speaking readers (e.g. differentiating c, s, c(h) and sh where necessary). The main emphasis here is to distinguish between:  dental (e.g. t, d) and retroflex  (e.g. ṭ, ḍ) consonants; aspirated (e.g. kh, gh, th, dh) and unaspirated (e.g. k, g, t, d) consonants; and long (e.g. ā, ī, ē) and short (e.g. a, e, i) vowels.

ABBREVIATIONS:

  1. Ang: Angami (Nagaland)
  2. Ara: Arabic (Middle East)
  3. Asm: Assamese (Assam)
  4. Bad: Badaga (tribal language, Tamil Nadu)
  5. Ben: Bengali (West Bengal)
  6. Bod: Bodo (Assam)
  7. Bur: Burmese (Burma)
  8. Dog: Dogri (Jammu)
  9. Dra: Dravidian (South India)
  10. Div: Dhivehi (Lakshadweep/Maldives)
  11. Gk: Greek (Europe)
  12. Gar: Garhwali (Uttarakhand)
  13. Gro: Garo (Meghalaya)
  14. Gon: Gondi (tribal language, Central India)
  15. Guj: Gujarati (Northwest India)
  16. Hin: Hindi (North India)
  17. Ksh: Kashmiri (Kashmir)
  18. Kch: Kachari (Nagaland)
  19. Kha: Khasi (Meghalaya)
  20. Kbi: Karbi, Mikir (Northeast India)
  21. Kan: Kannada (Karnataka)
  22. Kol: Kolami (Maharashtra, Telangana)
  23. Kok: Kokborok (Tripura)
  24. Kon: Konkani (Goa)
  25. Kum: Kumaoni (Uttarakhand)
  26. Lat: Latin (Europe)
  27. Lep: Lepcha (Sikkim)
  28. Ldk: Ladakhi (Ladakh)
  29. Lim: Limbu (Sikkim)
  30. Malay: Malay (Malaysia/Indonesia)
  31. Mal: Malayalam (Kerala)
  32. Mar: Marathi (Maharashtra)
  33. Mra: Mara (Mizoram)
  34. Mei: Meitei/Manipuri (Manipur)
  35. Miz: Mizo (Mizoram)
  36. Mon: Mon (Thailand/Myanmar)
  37. Mun: Mundari (East India)
  38. Nag: Nagamese  (Creole, Nagaland)
  39. Nep: Nepalese (Sikkim)
  40. Odi: Odia (Odisha)
  41. Pdr: Proto-Dravidian (ancient India)
  42. Per: Persian (Persia/Iran)
  43. Pkt: Prakrit (pan-India)
  44. Por: Portuguese
  45. Raj: Rajasthani
  46. Sad: Sadri (tribal language, East India)
  47. San: Santali (tribal language, NE India)
  48. Sik: Sikkimese (Sikkim)
  49. Sin: Sinhala (Sri Lanka) 
  50. Skt: Sanskrit (ancient India)
  51. Tai: Tai/Thai (Assam/SE Asia)
  52. Tam: Tamil (Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka)
  53. Tel: Telugu (Andhra Pradesh/Telangana)
  54. Tib: Tibetan (Tibet)
  55. Tlu: Tulu (Karnataka/Kerala)
  56. Tod: Toda (tribal language, Tamil Nadu)
  57. Urd: Urdu/Hindustani (North India).

 

DICTIONARIES:

These are the dictionaries (sometimes little more than glossaries) that I have consulted in order to write the entries on this site. Without them it would all have been impossible.

  1. Angami: (1) Giridharm P.P. (1987). Angami-English Dictionary. Mysore: CIIL. (2) Sekhose, R (1984). Angami Dictionary with English Equivalent Words. Kohima.
  2. Arabic: Doniach, Nakdimon S. (1972). The Oxford English Arabic Dictionary of Current Usage. Oxford University Press.
  3. Assamese: Chandrakanta Abhidhan: a comprehensive dictionary of the Assamese language with etymology and illustrations of words with their meanings in Assamese and English. Guwahati: Guwahati Biswabidyalaya, 1987.
  4. Badaga: Hockings, Paul and Christiane Pilot-Raichoor.(1992), A Badaga-English Dictionary. Walter de Gruyter,
  5. Bengali: Biswas, Sailendra (2000). Samsad Bengali-English dictionary. 3rd ed. Calcutta, Sahitya Samsad; Carey, W. (1993).A Dictionary Of The Bengali Language. Delhi: Asian Educational Services.
  6. Bodo: (1) Brahma, N.K.(1986). Students’ Anglo Bodo dictionary. Guwahati : Bina Library, (2) K.B.S. Students Dictionary: Anglo-Bodo (2001), Guwahati:Kamakhya Book Stall.
  7. Dravidian: Burrow, T. and M. B. Emeneau (1984),. A Dravidian Etymological dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press; ..
  8. Dhivehi: Maniku, Hassan Ahmed (2000). A Concise Etymological Vocabulary of Dhivehi language. Colombo : The Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka.(2) F. Abdulla and M. O’Shea (2005). English−Dhivehi/Dhivehi−English Dictionary: A guide to the language of Maldives [https://twothousandisles.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/dhivehi-dictionary.pdf].
  9. Garhwali: Bhagwati Prasad Nautiyal and Dr Achalanand Jakhmola (2016). A Comprehensive Garhwali-Hindi-English Dictionary. Dehradun: Akhil Garhwal Sabha.
  10. Gondi: Penny, Mark and Joanna,and Pendur Durnath Rao (2005). Gondi Dictionary: Gondi–English–Hindi–Telugu. Integrated Tribal Development Agency: Utnoor, Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh.
  11. Gujarati: (1) Suthar, Babu (2003). Gujarati-English Learner’s Dictionary. A Nirman Foundation Project. Department of South Asia Studies. University of Pennsylvania ccat.sas.upenn.edu/plc/gujarati/guj-engdictionary.pdf]. (2) Belsare, Malhar Bhikaji (1904), An Etymological Gujarati-English Dictionary. Ahmedabad: H.K. Pathak. (3) Mehta, B.N. (1925). The Modern Gujarati-English Dictionary. Baroda: M.C. Kothari.
  12. Hindi: (1) McGregor, Ronald Stuart (1993). The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press. (2) Bahri, Hardev. Learners’ Hindi-English dictionary = Siksarthi Hindi-Angrejhi sabdakosa. Delhi: Rajapala, 1989. (3) Caturvedi, Mahendra. A Practical Hindi-English dictionary. Delhi: National Pub.House, 1970.
  13. Kachari: Dundas, W.C.M.(1908). Outline grammar and dictionary of the Kachari (Dimasa) language (Based on Mani Charan Barman’s Kachari grammar). Shillong: Eastern Bengal and Assam Secretariat Press.
  14. Kashmiri: Grierson, George Abraham (1932). A Dictionary of the Kashmiri language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal.
  15. Khasi: U. Nissor Singh (ed. P.R.T. Gurdon).. Khasi-English Dictionary.  Shillong (1904). Reprint (2001). Delhi: Mittal Publications; U. Nissor Singh. English-Khasi dictionary. Shillong (1920). Reprint (1988). Delhi: Mittal Publications.
  16. Karbi (Mikir): Sarklim Taro (2010). Karbi-English Dictionary. Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes, 2010.
  17. Kannada: (1) Učida, N. and B.B.Rajapurohit (2013). Kannada-English Etymological Dictionary. Tokyo: ILCAA. (2) Kittel, F. (1894). Kittel’s Kannada-English dictionary. Rev. Ed. M. Mariappa Bhat. 4 Vol. University of Madras.
  18. Kokborok: (1) Debbarma, Binoy (2001). Concise. Kokborok-English-Bengali Dictionary. Language Wing, Education Department. TTAADC, Khumulwng, Tripura. (2) Learn Kokborok. ttaadc.gov.in/sites/default/files/LearnKokborok.pdf
  19. Konkani: A. F. Xavier Maffei. (1883). An English-Konkani Dictionary. Mangalore : Basel Mission Press. (2) Mukeśa Thaḷī; Mukesa, Dāmodara Ghāṇekāra and S J Borkar (1999). Rajhauns Konkani-English Illustrated Dictionary. Panaji : Rajahasa.
  20. Kumaoni: Bishṭa, Sher Singh (1993). Hindi-Kumaoni-English Dictionary. Śrī Almoṛā Book Depot, Saṃskaraṇ.
  21. Lepcha: Mainwaring, G.B. and  Albert Grunwedel. Dictionary of the Lepcha Language. Berlin: Unger Brothers.
  22. Ladakhi: Norberg-Hodge, Helena and Gyelong Thupstan Paldan (1991).Ladakhi-English, English-Ladakhi Dictionary.Ladakh Project Publication.
  23. Malayalam: (1) Gundert, Hermann (1872).. A Malayalam and English dictionary. Mangalore/London: C. Stolz; Trübner & Co., (2) V. Saratchandran Nair (2011). Malayalam— English bilingual bidirectional dictionary. .Mysuru: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
  24. Marathi: (1) Berntsen, Maxine (1975). A Basic Marathi-English Dictionary. Philadelphia: South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania, (2) Molesworth, J. T. (1857). A Dictionary, Marathi and English. Bombay: Printed for Government at the Bombay Education Society’s Press.
  25. Mara: Lorrain, R.A. (1951). Grammar and Dictionary of the Lakher or Mara language.Gauhati : Dept. of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Govt. of Assam.
  26. Meitei/Manipuri: Sharma, H. Surmangol (2006). Learners’ Manipuri-English Dictionary. Imphal : Sangam Book Store,
  27. Mizo: J.F Laldailova Dictionary (English to Mizo) [ruatdika.weebly.com/uploads/4/1/5/2/4152533/jf_laldailova_dictionary.pdf].
  28. Mundari: Manindra Bhusan Bhaduri (1931). A Mundari-English Dictionary. Reprint Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1994.
  29. Nagamese: Baruwā, Bhīmakānta (2014).Dictionary of Nagamese language : Nagamese-English-Assamese.New Delhi : Mittal Publications.
  30. Odia/Oriya: G. C. Praharaj, Pūrṇṇachandra Orḍiā bhāshākosha : A Lexicon of the Oriya Language. 1931-40. 7 vols.
  31. Persian: (1) Hayyim, Sulayman (1934). New Persian-English dictionary, [Teheran, Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim]. (2) Steingass, Francis Joseph (1892). A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary. London: Routledge & K. Paul..
  32. Prakrit: Turner, R. L. (1962), Sir. A comparative dictionary of Indo-Aryan languages. London: Oxford University Press,
  33. Portuguese: Oxford Portuguese Dictionary (2015).
  34. Rajasthani: (1) Macalister, George (1898). A Dictionary of the Dialects Spoken in the State of Jeypore. Allahabad Mission Press. (2) [freewebs.com/hanvant/rajasthani_dictionary.htm].
  35. Sadri: Sadri Dictionary [webonary.org/sadri/]
  36. Sanskrit: (1) Apte, V. S. (1884). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan, Rev. Ed. 1957. (2) Macdonell, A. A. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press, 1929. (3) Monier-Williams. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899.
  37. Sinhala: (1) Clough, Benjamin (1892). Sinhala-English Dictionary. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982. (2) Carter, Charles (1924). A Sinhalese-English dictionary. Colombo: The “Ceylon Observer” Printing Works; London: Probsthain & Co.
  38. Tamil: (1) Fabricius, Johann Philipp (1910). Tamil and English dictionary. 4th ed., Tranquebar: Evangelical Lutheran Mission Pub. House, 1972. (2)  Tamil lexicon: University of Madras, 1936. (3) Winslow, Miron. A comprehensive Tamil and English dictionary of high and low Tamil. Madras: P.R. Hunt, 1862.(3) McAlpin, David W.  A core vocabulary for Tamil. Rev. ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Dept. of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1981. (4) P. Percival (1861). English-Tamil Dictionary. Reprint New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1993.
  39. Telugu: (1) Brown, Charles Philip. A Telugu-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Madras: Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1903. (2) Gwynn, J. P. L. A Telugu-English Dictionary. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  40. Tibetan: Goldstein, Melvyn C. (2002). English-Tibetan Dictionary of Modern Tibetan. Paljor Publications.
  41. Tulu: Rev A. Manner. English-Tulu Dictionary. Mangalore: Basel Mission Press 1888
  42. Urdu: Fallon, S. W. (1879) A New Hindustani-English Dictionary,  Banaras, London, Printed at the Medical Hall Press; Trubner and Co.